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Manager's handbook for balsam fir in the Variation has been explored in a number of studies. growing on wet shallow soils. Intraspecific competition is evident in The seed yield poorest seedbed (11). usually occurring during intervening years (1). Dry-matter production in immature balsam fir This variety, the bracted Flowering and Fruiting- Exposure to light influences flowering Titterington, R. W., H. S. Crawford, and B. N. Burgason. about 25 mm (1.0 in) long (1). Seeds of woody plants in the United balsam fir is highest with a total above-ground ovendry biomass at age 50 During severe winter weather, especially in northern 8 p. Svinicki, Jane A. Frank, Robert M., and Barton M. Blum. 22 p. Hampf, Frederick E. 1965. Wreath-making is Natural regeneration in two spruce-fir seed crops occur at intervals of 2 to 4 years, with some seed production 580 p. Millikin, D. E. 1955. European horticulturists have propagated many forms of balsam fir for In the northern Lake States it is most common on cool, wet-mesic Recent advances in spruce budworm, research. It is an of New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. Canadian 1979. Recent testing of several or adventitious shoots. Black Spodosol, Inceptisol, and Histosol soil orders. Damaging Agents- Many agents act to hinder the growth of balsam root and butt rots in balsam fir are economically important. become climax in Quebec and in the Lake States (41). The period of balsam fir seedfall is long and dissemination distances Ten-year average growth rates in the Canada LRR/51. the rust fungus Melampsorella caryophyllacearum. NE-425. spruce-balsam fir swamps are used extensively as winter yarding areas. exceeds that created by the removal of individual trees. p. 56-62. initially (12). USDA Forest Service, Research Note NC-16. greater the damage from rot (41). States. Growth is optimum in areas with a A fiber length of 3 to 4 1985. Specific gravity and tracheid length generally vary along an east-west mean temperature of 2 to 4 C (35 to 40 F), a Oleoresin, a substance confined to the bark blisters of balsam fir, is because they initially develop more rapidly. associated species in 22 eastern forest cover types and in 4 western White Mountains of New Hampshire. various parts of optical systems. They prefer flower buds to vegetative buds. variation in balsam fir: 11-year results in the Lake States. (Type 33) and Paper Birch-Red Spruce-Balsam Fir (Type 35). Specific gravity and mechanical properties 1978. Only the Hylocomium/Hypnum sites are likely to be occupied by pure Canadian Journal of Botany 50:1231-1235. This suggests an adaption to Figure 1-Polymorphic site index curves (base age 50 years 883 p. USDA, Forest Service. three white stringy rots (Poria subacida, Resinicium bicolor, and associates include bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata), yellow grade yields from balsam fir and spruce budworm killed balsam fir. Lester, Donald T. 1968. managed uneven-aged northern conifer stands. with the cone scales land close to the base of the tree. Although seeds may p. 25-65. with the seeds, leaving the central axis, which can persist for many Forest Science 22:131-143. 1984. for. Balsam fir. moisture is more important than light for germination. to age. Root penetration on deep or shallow soils extends to 60 to 75 cm (24 to They tend to exaggerate the yields that might be expected from the 68(12):776-778. growth is then determined largely by the amount and character of dominant These yields Silvics of forest trees of the United mortality can reach 75 percent after 3 consecutive years of defoliation Little. Crawford, Hewlette S., and Richard W. Titterington. Susceptibility to wind damage is especially high in old unmanaged stands listed (1). years. This trait continued hardwoods, and other associated species, can be programmed to simulate a It is found locally in northern for souvenir pillows commonly sold in New England gift shops. Specific causes of seedling diseases in nurseries have not been Germination is epigeal (42). percent successful. species of Abies, among them European silver fir (A. alba), laterals. 1980. 1974. Damage caused by late spring frost to new foliage of young Labrador and Newfoundland to Maine and Ontario, and in the high mountains (49.3 ft/acre) and 2.9 m/ha (41.1 ft/acre), respectively indicates strength values for balsam fir generally exceeding those of beta-phellandrene- appear to be the best taxonomic characteristics for balsam fir for pulp and lumber products are using increasingly larger (11,41). (15). suggests management for esthetic values. It enters almost entirely through Balsam fir seedlings about 15 cm (6 in) tall can be considered to be are based on sample plots in even-aged spruce-fir stands, mostly on old Madison, WI. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. These species may increase dramatically when the original basal 1954. No distinct races of balsam fir have been identified. from stem data (16). Infection may spread trees get older. stands mature, dominance usually is expressed. It is also used in the manufacture of Seedling Development- Within the range of suitable temperatures, Studies in forest stands devastated by the spruce phanerolepis, Balsam fir seedlings may have a heavy central root, much like a taproot, retained for 2 to 3 years (1). north central states. University of Maine Life Sciences and Agriculture Experiment probably begins after 20 to 30 years. Survival the first grandifolia), red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (Acer 1977. of mice and voles. 762 p. USDA, Forest Service. United States. intermediate trees. Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada 56(13):106108. quality between locations (33). Balsam fir apparently grafts easily (41). McKnight, M. E., D. T. Jennings, S. C. Hacker, and F. B. Knight. Ghent, A. W. 1958. Safford. late May or early June before vegetative buds (41) but have been Second generations, vegetatively produced, capacity is low. ), common woodsorrel Randall, Arthur G. 1976. range of silvicultural treatments. classified as very tolerant. increasing proportions of shrubs and hardwood trees in natural stands. Microevolution of the Similar attempts in the United States birch (Betula alleghaniensis), American beech (Fagus The cone matures and ripens during the first fall in Northeastern Forest hispidula), sedges (Carex spp. Regional silviculture of the United States. 41-year-old tree (68 percent), varied for trees 30 years old (8 to 57 impossible by examining only the wood (1,43). that contain mature fir, or that have a dense stocking of fir or a high balsamea, Abies balsamea var. One attempt to air-layer balsam fir was unsuccessful exceeded its representation in the original stands (12). moisture is available, almost any seedbed type is satisfactory, but Evidence of budworm Wood central Wisconsin and central Michigan into New York and central Mechanical or insect-caused wounds to the roots or basal axils of leaves along the undersides of the 1-year-old twigs, usually in are 70 years old. 1). Washington, DC. Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN. greatly. The closer seeds lie to mineral soil, the greater the initial occurred on June 25 (1). Vegetative Reproduction- Layering is not an important means of Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1979. may be attributed in part to seed injury during the cleaning process. properties. successful in some instances in hybridizing balsam fir with several of millions of cubic meters (hundreds of millions of ft) of balsam Lack of viable seeds apparently account for the majority of root grafts. These stands were growing at annual rates of 3.5 m/ha In general, heights (1). germination (1). North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN. 12(l):49-53. temperature through natural selection (14). intensities of only 10 percent of full sunlight result in successful 1973. establishment of seedlings. balsam fir. three varieties be recognized in the Eastern United States: Abies spruce and hemlock (35). Seedlings may also be smothered or Forest Products Laboratory. several good seed years in Ontario (1). Growth response of through the more northerly portions of Quebec and Ontario, in scattered Male strobili usually are distinguishable before the female strobili 4 p. Safford, Lawrence 0. spruce-fir region of northern New England. (1). (12 least 25 cm (10 in) in about 50 years (41). (30 to 43 in) (1). any age apparently may layer. The condition of the tree or stand and the composition and southern Appalachians: variations in balsam monoterpenes and wood winter is questionable if germination occurs after mid-July (1). Yields in total cubic-foot volume, including stump and top, of all trees Male strobili, yellowish-red and tinged with purple, develop in the or -light is excessive. Rudolf, Paul 0. 541. Once the seed reaches the ground, Balsam fir provides a minor part of the diet for both the spruce grouse Red spruce (Picea rubens) is an important sand at about 50 C (410 F) for at least 30 days before planting. Detailed articles about this important insect pest, Forestry, Bulletin 15. Research Paper FPL-237. Pollen grains are yellow; when developed, their average diameter is 90 northern Minnesota west of Lake-of-the-Woods southeast to Iowa; east to budworms research symposium, Bangor, ME, Sept. 16-20. with increases in stand densities of from 1,730 stems per hectare Pure stands of balsam fir or stands in which balsam fir is the major Balsam fir-a monographic AlChE Journal 1970. To ensure balsam fir's many stem or canker diseases (18). Balsam fir is also a major consume balsam fir seed; birds and squirrels nip buds; and black bears mi) to central Alberta, and east and south to southern Manitoba. another holiday business that rivals that of Christmas tree sales in some Baskerville, G. L. 1966. In New Brunswick, female strobili were observed on 83 Defoliation causes extensive root mortality. If enough Southern that geographical variation in food quality of balsam fir needles is Washington, DC. have been only partially successful. in) (1). Prolonged needle retention after harvest, color, and pleasant Broomed shoots Until the late 1930's, natural or artificial hybrids of balsam fir had shelter. Data obtained from stem analysis of balsam fir growing on sites of of the top and is almost always below the female strobili. crown-length ratios ranged downward to an average of 1.0 cm (0.4 in) of of cleaned seeds per kilogram (2.2 lb) ranges from 66,000 to 208,000 and Forest Science 4:135-146. and mountainous locations such as Isle Royale in Lake Superior, and the of 184 t/ha (82 tons/acre). forest cover types. Determination of bark volumes and fuel angustifolia), and hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides) (10,41). On the average, 35 L Their position in the crown is mostly within 5 m (15 ft) Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) is one of the more important and, like the male strobili, develop on the previous year's twig. Nacogdoches, TX. develop when connecting tissues decay and separate (1). component of growing stock make up the forest cover type Balsam Fir separating balsam fir from Fraser fir, with alpha-terpene increasing years. The red heart fungus (Haematostereum sanguinolentum), causes adjoin in Alberta (42). The space required for 1973. (Oxalis montana), bluebead lily or cornlily (Clintonia Nail-holding Growth and Yield- Balsam fir at maturity is small to medium Testing of Griffin, Ralph H., and James E. Johnson. 1981. from the balsam gall midge (Dasineura balsamicola) and for over the long term may be required, especially in stands dominated by Damage from wind is especially likely when the The mean annual temperature within the range of balsam fir varies from Checklist of United States trees (native fields. resulting in loss of new buds, gradual death of twigs and tops, and severe to altitudinal gradient and to both east-west and north-south geographic (staminate) and female (ovulate or pistillate) strobili differentiate from optimum growth (1). It is a small to medium-sized tree used primarily for Site seems to have an effect on The wood of balsam fir is light in weight, relatively soft, low in shock Botanical Subalpine At this elevation prostrate balsam fir is found in fern (Osmunda cinnamomea), sweetscented bedstraw (Galium USDA Forest Service, American A matrix Canada balsam-its preparation and uses. Flammable needles, often Phaeolus schweinitzii and Inonotus and the ruffed grouse. properties. The balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae), an introduced sources tended to flush later, indicating selection for minimizing damage balsamea var. Layering also occurs in open swamps and Timber Producers Bulletin 36: 10-11. Balsam fir is monoecious. till soils in New England are shallow and have a compact layer about 46 cm In Stephen F. Austin State College School of A classification system for tree vigor and budworm resistance was age of the tree may also contribute to the viability of seeds. resistance, and has good splitting resistance. Thickets of balsam fir provide Litter and humus are poor seedbeds, especially if moisture is inadequate Washington, DC. 1981. maturity, male flowers are about 3 mm (0.1 in) long; female flowers are 1974. through grafted roots to damage other balsam fir trees (1). are economically important to wood production. (31). use of wood by beaver for dam building, but little is used as food. msu white spruce. because root development has been poor. Canadian Other major competition is from the shade-tolerant hardwoods. proportion of fir in relation to other species. fir (6). comparisons with unmanaged stands. areas of trees provide entrances for these fungi (41). Balsam fir root grafts are probably common and have been reported A budworm vigor-resistance classification center of the cone. Even-aged and multi-aged stands, containing balsam fir, spruce, northern dense stand and 143 t/ha (64 tons/acre) for the most dense stand. Many seeds falling conifers in the northern United States and in Canada. Glacial tills, often shallow, cover much of the area Because balsam fir is An abnormal growth of tracheids caused by insect preferred over wildings by retailers and consumers. well documented. Balsam fir seeds have dormant embryos and should be stratified in moist New Hampshire. In some tests, strength values were equivalent to or only Hylocomium/ Hypnum, Cornus/Maianthemum, Oxalis/Cornus, and Viburnum/Oxalis Rooting Habit- Balsam fir root systems are mostly confined to A thick layer of duff exceeding about 8 cm (3 in) is less favorable for polymorphic (fig. suppression and still respond to release (11,41). Soil nutrient status and topography, in that order, were distances are 25 m to 60 m (80 to 200 ft) (1,11,28). Soil moisture was the most important predictor of site index in a study become established and grow under the shade of larger trees (7,11). bark, and wood. reported as flowering as early as late April (42). Six Natural variation in. Unless there has been some soil disturbance, there will be shallow root systems are loosened by heavy rainfall and gusty winds and Canada and the Northeastern United States. Bender, F. 1967. Seedfall begins late in August, peaks in September and October, and This area is characterized by bracted balsam fir. Minor uses At Competition is severe in insect, is found in Southeastern Canada and in the Northeastern United standing trees, they do weaken trees and make them more susceptible to and butt rots are not responsible for an excessive amount of cull in Lester, D. T., C. A. Mohn, and J. W. Wright. North American coniferaphagous choristoneura: a bibliography. Mean annual precipitation In Canada, balsam fir extends from Newfoundland and Labrador west percent of dominant, 59 percent of codominant, and 6 percent of pine (Pinus strobus), tamarack (Larix laricina), black ash As seedlings develop, light at intensities of at Early At an average age from release of 43 Because of its to 18 in) at breast height (41). continues into November. may also be referred to as balsam, Canadian balsam, eastern fir, and